i Table of contents 276

Trade Secrets 2025

Definitive global law guides offering comparative analysis from top-ranked lawyers

INTRODUCTION		5
Contributed by Simon Bushell, Gareth Keillor and Maitreyee Dixit, Seladore Legal		5
AUSTRALIA		10
Law and Practice		10
Contributed by Gilbert + Tobin		10
Trends and Developments		32
Contributed by Gilbert + Tobin		32
CHINA		40
Law and Practice		40
Contributed by CCPIT Patent and Trademark Law Office		40
Trends and Developments		59
Contributed by AllBright Law Offices		59
CHINA – BEIJING		65
Trends and Developments		65
Contributed by Jingtian & Gongcheng		65
GERMANY		74
Law and Practice		74
Contributed by SZA Schilling, Zutt & Anschütz		74
Trends and Developments		96
Contributed by SZA Schilling, Zutt & Anschütz		96
INDIA		105
Law and Practice		105
Contributed by Anand and Anand		105
ITALY		130
Law and Practice		130
Contributed by EY Tax & Law		130
Trends and Developments		153
Contributed by EY Tax & Law		153
JAPAN		157
Law and Practice		157
Contributed by Anderson Mori & Tomotsune		157
Trends and Developments		173
Contributed by TMI Associates		173
MEXICO		181
Law and Practice		181
Contributed by BC&B Law & Business		181
Trends and Developments		199
Contributed by BC&B Law & Business		199
SOUTH KOREA		205
Law and Practice		205
Contributed by Yoon & Yang LLC		205
UK		226
Law and Practice		226
Contributed by Kirkland & Ellis International LLP		226
USA		248
Law and Practice		248
Contributed by Kirkland & Ellis LLP		248
USA		272
Trends and Developments		272
Contributed by Seyfarth Shaw LLP		272
1. Legal Framework		14
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		14
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		15
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		15
1.4 Elements of Trade Secret Protection		15
1.5 Reasonable Measures		15
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		15
1.7 Independent Discovery		16
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		16
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		16
1.10 Licensing		16
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		16
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		17
1.13 Other Legal Theories		17
1.14 Criminal Liability		17
1.15 Extraterritoriality		17
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		18
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		18
2.2 Employee Relationships		18
2.3 Joint Ventures		18
2.4 Industrial Espionage		18
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		19
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		19
3.2 Exit Interviews		19
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		19
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		19
4.2 New Employees		20
5. Trade Secret Litigation		20
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		20
5.2 Limitations Period		20
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		20
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		20
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		21
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		21
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		21
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		22
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		22
5.10 Dispositive Motions		23
5.11 Cost of Litigation		23
6. Trial		23
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		23
6.2 Trial Process		23
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		24
7. Remedies		24
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		24
7.2 Measures of Damages		25
7.3 Permanent Injunction		26
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		26
7.5 Costs		27
8. Appeal		27
8.1 Appellate Procedure		27
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		28
9. Criminal Offences		29
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		29
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		30
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		30
1. Legal Framework		44
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		44
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		44
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		44
1.4 Elements of Trade Secret Protection		45
1.5 Reasonable Measures		45
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		45
1.7 Independent Discovery		46
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		46
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		46
1.10 Licensing		46
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		46
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		47
1.13 Other Legal Theories		47
1.14 Criminal Liability		48
1.15 Extraterritoriality		48
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		49
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		49
2.2 Employee Relationships		49
2.3 Joint Ventures		49
2.4 Industrial Espionage		49
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		49
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		49
3.2 Exit Interviews		50
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		50
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		50
4.2 New Employees		51
5. Trade Secret Litigation		51
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		51
5.2 Limitations Period		51
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		51
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		52
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		52
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		52
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		53
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		53
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		53
5.10 Dispositive Motions		54
5.11 Cost of Litigation		54
6. Trial		54
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		54
6.2 Trial Process		54
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		55
7. Remedies		55
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		55
7.2 Measures of Damages		56
7.3 Permanent Injunction		56
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		56
7.5 Costs		56
8. Appeal		57
8.1 Appellate Procedure		57
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		57
9. Criminal Offences		57
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		57
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		57
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		57
1. Legal Framework		78
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		78
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		78
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		78
1.4 Elements of Trade Secret Protection		79
1.5 Reasonable Measures		79
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		80
1.7 Independent Discovery		80
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		80
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		81
1.10 Licensing		81
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		81
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		82
1.13 Other Legal Theories		82
1.14 Criminal Liability		82
1.15 Extraterritoriality		83
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		84
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		84
2.2 Employee Relationships		85
2.3 Joint Ventures		85
2.4 Industrial Espionage		86
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		86
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		86
3.2 Exit Interviews		87
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		87
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		87
4.2 New Employees		87
5. Trade Secret Litigation		88
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		88
5.2 Limitations Period		88
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		88
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		88
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		88
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		89
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		89
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		89
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		90
5.10 Dispositive Motions		90
5.11 Cost of Litigation		91
6. Trial		91
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		91
6.2 Trial Process		91
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		91
7. Remedies		92
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		92
7.2 Measures of Damages		92
7.3 Permanent Injunction		92
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		92
7.5 Costs		93
8. Appeal		93
8.1 Appellate Procedure		93
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		93
9. Criminal Offences		94
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		94
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		94
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		94
1. Legal Framework		109
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		109
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		110
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		112
1.4 Elements of Trade Secret Protection		112
1.5 Reasonable Measures		113
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		113
1.7 Independent Discovery		114
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		114
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		114
1.10 Licensing		115
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		115
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		116
1.13 Other Legal Theories		116
1.14 Criminal Liability		117
1.15 Extraterritoriality		117
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		117
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		117
2.2 Employee Relationships		118
2.3 Joint Ventures		118
2.4 Industrial Espionage		118
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		119
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		119
3.2 Exit Interviews		119
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		120
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		120
4.2 New Employees		120
5. Trade Secret Litigation		120
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		120
5.2 Limitations Period		121
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		121
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		121
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		122
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		122
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		123
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		123
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		123
5.10 Dispositive Motions		123
5.11 Cost of Litigation		124
6. Trial		125
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		125
6.2 Trial Process		125
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		125
7. Remedies		125
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		125
7.2 Measures of Damages		126
7.3 Permanent Injunction		126
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		127
7.5 Costs		127
8. Appeal		127
8.1 Appellate Procedure		127
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		128
9. Criminal Offences		128
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		128
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		129
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		129
1. Legal Framework		134
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		134
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		135
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		135
1.4 Elements of Trade Secret Protection		135
1.5 Reasonable Measures		136
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		136
1.7 Independent Discovery		136
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		137
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		137
1.10 Licensing		138
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		138
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		139
1.13 Other Legal Theories		139
1.14 Criminal Liability		140
1.15 Extraterritoriality		140
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		141
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		141
2.2 Employee Relationships		141
2.3 Joint Ventures		142
2.4 Industrial Espionage		142
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		142
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		142
3.2 Exit Interviews		143
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		144
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		144
4.2 New Employees		144
5. Trade Secret Litigation		144
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		144
5.2 Limitations Period		145
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		145
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		145
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		145
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		146
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		146
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		147
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		147
5.10 Dispositive Motions		148
5.11 Cost of Litigation		148
6. Trial		148
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		148
6.2 Trial Process		148
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		149
7. Remedies		149
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		149
7.2 Measures of Damages		149
7.3 Permanent Injunction		150
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		150
7.5 Costs		150
8. Appeal		150
8.1 Appellate Procedure		150
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		151
9. Criminal Offences		151
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		151
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		152
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		152
1. Legal Framework		160
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		160
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		160
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		160
1.4 Elements of Trade Secret Protection		161
1.5 Reasonable Measures		161
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		161
1.7 Independent Discovery		162
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		162
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		162
1.10 Licensing		162
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		162
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		162
1.13 Other Legal Theories		163
1.14 Criminal Liability		163
1.15 Extraterritoriality		163
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		163
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		163
2.2 Employee Relationships		164
2.3 Joint Ventures		164
2.4 Industrial Espionage		164
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		165
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		165
3.2 Exit Interviews		165
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		165
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		165
4.2 New Employees		166
5. Trade Secret Litigation		166
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		166
5.2 Limitations Period		166
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		167
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		167
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		167
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		167
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		167
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		168
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		169
5.10 Dispositive Motions		169
5.11 Cost of Litigation		169
6. Trial		169
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		169
6.2 Trial Process		169
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		170
7. Remedies		170
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		170
7.2 Measures of Damages		170
7.3 Permanent Injunction		171
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		171
7.5 Costs		171
8. Appeal		171
8.1 Appellate Procedure		171
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		171
9. Criminal Offences		172
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		172
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		172
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		172
1. Legal Framework		185
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		185
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		185
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		185
1.4 Elements of Trade Secret Protection		185
1.5 Reasonable Measures		185
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		186
1.7 Independent Discovery		186
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		187
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		187
1.10 Licensing		187
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		187
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		188
1.13 Other Legal Theories		188
1.14 Criminal Liability		188
1.15 Extraterritoriality		189
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		189
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		189
2.2 Employee Relationships		190
2.3 Joint Ventures		190
2.4 Industrial Espionage		190
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		190
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		190
3.2 Exit Interviews		190
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		191
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		191
4.2 New Employees		191
5. Trade Secret Litigation		191
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		191
5.2 Limitations Period		192
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		192
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		192
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		192
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		193
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		193
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		193
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		193
5.10 Dispositive Motions		193
5.11 Cost of Litigation		193
6. Trial		194
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		194
6.2 Trial Process		194
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		194
7. Remedies		194
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		194
7.2 Measures of Damages		195
7.3 Permanent Injunction		195
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		196
7.5 Costs		196
8. Appeal		196
8.1 Appellate Procedure		196
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		196
9. Criminal Offences		196
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		196
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		198
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		198
1. Legal Framework		209
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		209
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		209
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		209
1.4 Elements of Trade Secret Protection		209
1.5 Reasonable Measures		210
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		210
1.7 Independent Discovery		210
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		210
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		211
1.10 Licensing		211
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		211
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		212
1.13 Other Legal Theories		212
1.14 Criminal Liability		212
1.15 Extraterritoriality		213
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		213
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		213
2.2 Employee Relationships		214
2.3 Joint Ventures		214
2.4 Industrial Espionage		214
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		215
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		215
3.2 Exit Interviews		215
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		216
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		216
4.2 New Employees		216
5. Trade Secret Litigation		217
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		217
5.2 Limitations Period		217
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		217
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		217
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		217
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		217
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		218
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		218
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		219
5.10 Dispositive Motions		219
5.11 Cost of Litigation		220
6. Trial		220
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		220
6.2 Trial Process		220
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		221
7. Remedies		221
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		221
7.2 Measures of Damages		222
7.3 Permanent Injunction		223
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		223
7.5 Costs		223
8. Appeal		224
8.1 Appellate Procedure		224
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		224
9. Criminal Offences		224
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		224
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		225
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		225
1. Legal Framework		230
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		230
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		230
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		231
1.4 Elements of Trade Secret Protection		232
1.5 Reasonable Measures		232
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		233
1.7 Independent Discovery		234
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		234
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		234
1.10 Licensing		234
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		234
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		235
1.13 Other Legal Theories		235
1.14 Criminal Liability		235
1.15 Extraterritoriality		235
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		236
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		236
2.2 Employee Relationships		236
2.3 Joint Ventures		236
2.4 Industrial Espionage		237
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		237
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		237
3.2 Exit Interviews		237
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		238
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		238
4.2 New Employees		238
5. Trade Secret Litigation		238
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		238
5.2 Limitations Period		239
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		239
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		239
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		239
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		240
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		240
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		241
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		241
5.10 Dispositive Motions		241
5.11 Cost of Litigation		241
6. Trial		242
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		242
6.2 Trial Process		242
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		242
7. Remedies		242
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		242
7.2 Measures of Damages		243
7.3 Permanent Injunction		244
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		245
7.5 Costs		245
8. Appeal		246
8.1 Appellate Procedure		246
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		246
9. Criminal Offences		246
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		246
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		247
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		247
1. Legal Framework		252
1.1 Sources of Legal Protection for Trade Secrets		252
1.2 What Is Protectable as a Trade Secret		252
1.3 Examples of Trade Secrets		252
1.4 Elements of Trade Secrt Protection		253
1.5 Reasonable Measures		254
1.6 Disclosure to Employees		254
1.7 Independent Discovery		255
1.8 Computer Software and Technology		255
1.9 Duration of Protection for Trade Secrets		255
1.10 Licensing		256
1.11 What Differentiates Trade Secrets From Other IP Rights		256
1.12 Overlapping IP Rights		256
1.13 Other Legal Theories		257
1.14 Criminal Liability		257
1.15 Extraterritoriality		257
2. Misappropriation of Trade Secrets		258
2.1 The Definition of Misappropriation		258
2.2 Employee Relationships		258
2.3 Joint Ventures		258
2.4 Industrial Espionage		259
3. Preventing Trade Secret Misappropriation		259
3.1 Best Practices for Safeguarding Trade Secrets		259
3.2 Exit Interviews		259
4. Safeguarding Against Allegations of Trade Secret Misappropriation		260
4.1 Pre-Existing Skills and Expertise		260
4.2 New Employees		260
5. Trade Secret Litigation		260
5.1 Prerequisites to Filing a Lawsuit		260
5.2 Limitations Period		261
5.3 Initiating a Lawsuit		261
5.4 Jurisdiction of the Courts		262
5.5 Initial Pleading Standards		262
5.6 Seizure Mechanisms		263
5.7 Obtaining Information and Evidence		264
5.8 Maintaining Secrecy While Litigating		264
5.9 Defending Against Allegations of Misappropriation		264
5.10 Dispositive Motions		265
5.11 Cost of Litigation		265
6. Trial		266
6.1 Bench or Jury Trial		266
6.2 Trial Process		266
6.3 Use of Expert Witnesses		266
7. Remedies		267
7.1 Preliminary Injunctive Relief		267
7.2 Measures of Damages		267
7.3 Permanent Injunction		268
7.4 Attorneys’ Fees		269
7.5 Costs		269
8. Appeal		269
8.1 Appellate Procedure		269
8.2 Factual or Legal Review		270
9. Criminal Offences		270
9.1 Prosecution Process, Penalties and Defences		270
10. Alternative Dispute Resolution		271
10.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms		271

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