i Table of contents 275

Public and Administrative Law 2025

Definitive global law guides offering comparative analysis from top-ranked lawyers

INTRODUCTION		5
Contributed by Charles Brasted and Julia Marlow, Hogan Lovells International LLP		5
AUSTRIA		9
Law and Practice		9
Contributed by Schönherr Rechtsanwälte GmbH		9
Trends and Developments		33
Contributed by Schönherr Rechtsanwälte GmbH		33
BRAZIL		43
Law and Practice		43
Contributed by Fenelon Barretto Rost		43
Trends and Developments		57
Contributed by Fenelon Barretto Rost		57
CANADA		66
Law and Practice		66
Contributed by Circle Barristers		66
Trends and Developments		81
Contributed by Circle Barristers		81
CHILE		87
Law and Practice		87
Contributed by Valdivia Legal		87
FRANCE		102
Law and Practice		102
Contributed by Willkie Farr & Gallagher LLP		102
Trends and Developments		125
Contributed by Willkie Farr & Gallagher LLP		125
GERMANY		132
Law and Practice		132
Contributed by R & P Legal		132
Trends and Developments		142
Contributed by R & P Legal		142
GREECE		147
Law and Practice		147
Contributed by Machas & Partners		147
ITALY		168
Law and Practice		168
Contributed by Legance		168
MEXICO		180
Trends and Developments		180
Contributed by Galicia Abogados		180
PORTUGAL		187
Law and Practice		187
Contributed by Sérvulo & Associados		187
Trends and Developments		206
Contributed by Sérvulo & Associados		206
UK		209
Law and Practice		209
Contributed by Hogan Lovells International LLP		209
USA		230
Law and Practice		230
Contributed by Blank Rome, LLP		230
Trends and Developments		245
Contributed by Kurzban Kurzban Tetzeli and Pratt		245
USA – CALIFORNIA		250
Law and Practice		250
Contributed by Buchalter		250
Trends and Developments		267
Contributed by Buchalter		267
1. Jurisdiction		13
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		13
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		13
2. Target of Challenge		14
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		14
3. Nature of the Decision		14
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		14
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		15
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		15
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		15
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		16
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		16
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		16
5. Ouster		16
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		16
6. Standing		17
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		17
6.2 Charities and NGOs		18
7. Other Parties		18
7.1 Joinder		18
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		18
8. Evidence		19
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		19
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		19
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		19
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		20
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		20
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		20
9.3 Time Limits		20
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		21
9.5 Procedural Stages		21
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		21
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		22
10. Grounds		22
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		22
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		23
10.3 Procedural Errors		23
10.4 Factual Errors		23
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		24
10.6 Bias		24
10.7 Unequal Treatment		24
10.8 Human Rights		25
10.9 Proportionality		26
10.10 Additional Grounds		26
10.11 Exempt Decisions		26
11. Defence		27
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		27
12. Interim Relief		28
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		28
13. Remedies		28
13.1 Damages		28
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		29
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		29
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		29
14. Costs		30
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		30
14.2 Public Interest Costs		30
14.3 Wasted Costs		30
15. Appeals		31
15.1 Right to Appeal		31
15.2 Appeal Forums		31
15.3 Permission to Appeal		31
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		32
1. Jurisdiction		46
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		46
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		46
2. Target of Challenge		46
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		46
3. Nature of the Decision		47
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		47
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		47
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		47
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		47
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		48
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		48
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		48
5. Ouster		48
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		48
6. Standing		49
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		49
6.2 Charities and NGOs		49
7. Other Parties		49
7.1 Joinder		49
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		49
8. Evidence		50
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		50
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		50
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		51
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		51
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		51
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		51
9.3 Time Limits		51
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		52
9.5 Procedural Stages		52
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		52
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		52
10. Grounds		53
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		53
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		53
10.3 Procedural Errors		53
10.4 Factual Errors		53
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		53
10.6 Bias		53
10.7 Unequal Treatment		53
10.8 Human Rights		53
10.9 Proportionality		54
10.10 Additional Grounds		54
10.11 Exempt Decisions		54
11. Defence		54
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		54
12. Interim Relief		54
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		54
13. Remedies		55
13.1 Damages		55
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		55
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		55
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		55
14. Costs		55
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		55
14.2 Public Interest Costs		56
14.3 Wasted Costs		56
15. Appeals		56
15.1 Right to Appeal		56
15.2 Appeal Forums		56
15.3 Permission to Appeal		56
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		56
1. Jurisdiction		69
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		69
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		69
2. Target of Challenge		69
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		69
3. Nature of the Decision		70
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		70
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		71
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		71
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		71
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		71
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		71
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		71
5. Ouster		72
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		72
6. Standing		72
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		72
6.2 Charities and NGOs		72
7. Other Parties		72
7.1 Joinder		72
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		72
8. Evidence		73
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		73
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		73
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		73
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		73
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		73
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		73
9.3 Time Limits		73
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		73
9.5 Procedural Stages		74
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		74
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		74
10. Grounds		74
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		74
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		74
10.3 Procedural Errors		75
10.4 Factual Errors		76
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		76
10.6 Bias		76
10.7 Unequal Treatment		76
10.8 Human Rights		77
10.9 Proportionality		77
10.10 Additional Grounds		77
10.11 Exempt Decisions		77
11. Defence		77
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		77
12. Interim Relief		77
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		77
13. Remedies		78
13.1 Damages		78
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		78
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		78
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		78
14. Costs		79
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		79
14.2 Public Interest Costs		79
14.3 Wasted Costs		79
15. Appeals		79
15.1 Right to Appeal		79
15.2 Appeal Forums		79
15.3 Permission to Appeal		79
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		80
1. Jurisdiction		91
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		91
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		91
2. Target of Challenge		91
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		91
3. Nature of the Decision		91
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		91
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		92
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		92
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		92
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		92
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		93
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		93
5. Ouster		93
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		93
6. Standing		93
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		93
6.2 Charities and NGOs		93
7. Other Parties		94
7.1 Joinder		94
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		94
8. Evidence		94
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		94
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		95
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		95
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		95
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		95
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		95
9.3 Time Limits		96
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		96
9.5 Procedural Stages		96
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		96
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		96
10. Grounds		97
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		97
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		97
10.3 Procedural Errors		97
10.4 Factual Errors		97
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		97
10.6 Bias		97
10.7 Unequal Treatment		97
10.8 Human Rights		98
10.9 Proportionality		98
10.10 Additional Grounds		98
10.11 Exempt Decisions		98
11. Defence		98
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		98
12. Interim Relief		99
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		99
13. Remedies		99
13.1 Damages		99
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		99
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		99
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		99
14. Costs		100
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		100
14.2 Public Interest Costs		100
14.3 Wasted Costs		100
15. Appeals		100
15.1 Right to Appeal		100
15.2 Appeal Forums		100
15.3 Permission to Appeal		101
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		101
1. Jurisdiction		106
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		106
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		106
2. Target of Challenge		106
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		106
3. Nature of the Decision		107
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		107
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		107
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		107
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		108
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		108
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		108
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		108
5. Ouster		109
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		109
6. Standing		109
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		109
6.2 Charities and NGOs		110
7. Other Parties		110
7.1 Joinder		110
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		110
8. Evidence		111
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		111
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		111
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		111
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		112
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		112
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		112
9.3 Time Limits		113
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		113
9.5 Procedural Stages		113
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		114
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		114
10. Grounds		115
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		115
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		116
10.3 Procedural Errors		116
10.4 Factual Errors		116
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		117
10.6 Bias		117
10.7 Unequal Treatment		117
10.8 Human Rights		118
10.9 Proportionality		118
10.10 Additional Grounds		118
10.11 Exempt Decisions		119
11. Defence		119
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		119
12. Interim Relief		119
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		119
13. Remedies		120
13.1 Damages		120
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		120
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		121
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		121
14. Costs		122
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		122
14.2 Public Interest Costs		122
14.3 Wasted Costs		122
15. Appeals		123
15.1 Right to Appeal		123
15.2 Appeal Forums		123
15.3 Permission to Appeal		123
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		123
1. Jurisdiction		135
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		135
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		135
2. Target of Challenge		136
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		136
3. Nature of the Decision		136
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		136
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		136
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		136
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		136
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		136
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		136
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		136
5. Ouster		136
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		136
6. Standing		137
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		137
6.2 Charities and NGOs		137
7. Other Parties		137
7.1 Joinder		137
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		137
8. Evidence		137
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		137
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		137
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		137
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		138
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		138
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		138
9.3 Time Limits		138
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		138
9.5 Procedural Stages		138
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		138
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		138
10. Grounds		138
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		138
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		138
10.3 Procedural Errors		139
10.4 Factual Errors		139
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		139
10.6 Bias		139
10.7 Unequal Treatment		139
10.8 Human Rights		139
10.9 Proportionality		139
10.10 Additional Grounds		139
10.11 Exempt Decisions		139
11. Defence		140
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		140
12. Interim Relief		140
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		140
13. Remedies		140
13.1 Damages		140
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		140
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		140
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		140
14. Costs		140
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		140
14.2 Public Interest Costs		140
14.3 Wasted Costs		140
15. Appeals		140
15.1 Right to Appeal		140
15.2 Appeal Forums		141
15.3 Permission to Appeal		141
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		141
1. Jurisdiction		151
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		151
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		151
2. Target of Challenge		152
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		152
3. Nature of the Decision		152
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		152
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		152
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		153
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		153
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		153
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		154
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		154
5. Ouster		154
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		154
6. Standing		154
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		154
6.2 Charities and NGOs		155
7. Other Parties		155
7.1 Joinder		155
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		156
8. Evidence		156
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		156
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		157
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		157
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		157
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		157
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		158
9.3 Time Limits		158
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		158
9.5 Procedural Stages		158
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		159
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		159
10. Grounds		160
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		160
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		160
10.3 Procedural Errors		160
10.4 Factual Errors		161
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		161
10.6 Bias		161
10.7 Unequal Treatment		162
10.8 Human Rights		162
10.9 Proportionality		162
10.10 Additional Grounds		163
10.11 Exempt Decisions		163
11. Defence		163
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		163
12. Interim Relief		163
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		163
13. Remedies		164
13.1 Damages		164
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		164
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		165
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		165
14. Costs		165
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		165
14.2 Public Interest Costs		166
14.3 Wasted Costs		166
15. Appeals		166
15.1 Right to Appeal		166
15.2 Appeal Forums		166
15.3 Permission to Appeal		167
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		167
1. Jurisdiction		171
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		171
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		171
2. Target of Challenge		171
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		171
3. Nature of the Decision		172
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		172
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		172
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		172
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		172
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		172
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		173
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		173
5. Ouster		173
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		173
6. Standing		173
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		173
6.2 Charities and NGOs		173
7. Other Parties		173
7.1 Joinder		173
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		174
8. Evidence		174
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		174
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		174
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		174
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		174
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		174
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		174
9.3 Time Limits		174
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		175
9.5 Procedural Stages		175
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		175
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		175
10. Grounds		176
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		176
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		176
10.3 Procedural Errors		176
10.4 Factual Errors		176
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		176
10.6 Bias		176
10.7 Unequal Treatment		177
10.8 Human Rights		177
10.9 Proportionality		177
10.10 Additional Grounds		177
10.11 Exempt Decisions		177
11. Defence		177
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		177
12. Interim Relief		177
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		177
13. Remedies		178
13.1 Damages		178
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		178
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		178
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		178
14. Costs		178
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		178
14.2 Public Interest Costs		178
14.3 Wasted Costs		178
15. Appeals		179
15.1 Right to Appeal		179
15.2 Appeal Forums		179
15.3 Permission to Appeal		179
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		179
1. Jurisdiction		190
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		190
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		190
2. Target of Challenge		191
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		191
3. Nature of the Decision		191
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		191
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		192
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		192
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		192
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		192
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		192
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		192
5. Ouster		193
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		193
6. Standing		194
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		194
6.2 Charities and NGOs		194
7. Other Parties		194
7.1 Joinder		194
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		194
8. Evidence		195
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		195
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		195
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		195
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		196
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		196
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		196
9.3 Time Limits		196
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		197
9.5 Procedural Stages		197
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		197
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		197
10. Grounds		198
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		198
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		198
10.3 Procedural Errors		199
10.4 Factual Errors		199
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		199
10.6 Bias		199
10.7 Unequal Treatment		200
10.8 Human Rights		200
10.9 Proportionality		200
10.10 Additional Grounds		200
10.11 Exempt Decisions		201
11. Defence		201
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		201
12. Interim Relief		201
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		201
13. Remedies		202
13.1 Damages		202
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		202
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		202
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		203
14. Costs		203
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		203
14.2 Public Interest Costs		204
14.3 Wasted Costs		204
15. Appeals		204
15.1 Right to Appeal		204
15.2 Appeal Forums		205
15.3 Permission to Appeal		205
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		205
1. Jurisdiction		213
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		213
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		213
2. Target of Challenge		213
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		213
3. Nature of the Decision		214
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		214
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		215
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		215
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		215
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		215
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		215
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		215
5. Ouster		216
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		216
6. Standing		216
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		216
6.2 Charities and NGOs		216
7. Other Parties		216
7.1 Joinder		216
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		217
8. Evidence		218
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		218
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		218
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		219
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		219
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		219
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		219
9.3 Time Limits		219
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		220
9.5 Procedural Stages		220
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		221
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		221
10. Grounds		222
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		222
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		222
10.3 Procedural Errors		223
10.4 Factual Errors		223
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		224
10.6 Bias		224
10.7 Unequal Treatment		224
10.8 Human Rights		224
10.9 Proportionality		225
10.10 Additional Grounds		225
10.11 Exempt Decisions		225
11. Defence		226
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		226
12. Interim Relief		226
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		226
13. Remedies		226
13.1 Damages		226
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		227
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		227
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		227
14. Costs		228
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		228
14.2 Public Interest Costs		228
14.3 Wasted Costs		228
15. Appeals		228
15.1 Right to Appeal		228
15.2 Appeal Forums		229
15.3 Permission to Appeal		229
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		229
1. Jurisdiction		233
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		233
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		234
2. Target of Challenge		234
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		234
3. Nature of the Decision		235
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		235
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		235
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		236
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		236
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		236
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		237
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		237
5. Ouster		237
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		237
6. Standing		237
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		237
6.2 Charities and NGOs		237
7. Other Parties		238
7.1 Joinder		238
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		238
8. Evidence		239
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		239
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		239
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		239
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		239
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		239
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		239
9.3 Time Limits		240
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		240
9.5 Procedural Stages		240
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		240
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		240
10. Grounds		241
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		241
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		241
10.3 Procedural Errors		241
10.4 Factual Errors		241
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		241
10.6 Bias		242
10.7 Unequal Treatment		242
10.8 Human Rights		242
10.9 Proportionality		242
10.10 Additional Grounds		242
10.11 Exempt Decisions		243
11. Defence		243
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		243
12. Interim Relief		243
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		243
13. Remedies		243
13.1 Damages		243
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		243
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		244
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		244
14. Costs		244
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		244
14.2 Public Interest Costs		244
14.3 Wasted Costs		244
15. Appeals		244
15.1 Right to Appeal		244
15.2 Appeal Forums		244
15.3 Permission to Appeal		244
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		244
1. Jurisdiction		254
1.1 General Rules or Specific Regimes?		254
1.2 Forum for Judicial Review		255
2. Target of Challenge		255
2.1 Determining Susceptibility		255
3. Nature of the Decision		255
3.1 Challenging Primary Legislation		255
3.2 Challenging Secondary Legislation		255
3.3 Government Decisions Affecting Sole Individuals		255
3.4 Agreements Between Private Entities and Public Bodies		256
3.5 Challenging Decisions Without Legal Effect		256
4. Nature of the Decision-Maker		256
4.1 Judicial Review of Commercial and Non-Governmental Decisions		256
5. Ouster		256
5.1 Legislative or Contractual Limits on Judicial Review		256
6. Standing		256
6.1 Requirements for Administrative Law Challenges		256
6.2 Charities and NGOs		257
7. Other Parties		257
7.1 Joinder		257
7.2 Roles of Additional Parties		257
8. Evidence		257
8.1 Disclosure/Discovery		257
8.2 Alternatives to Disclosure/Discovery		258
8.3 Live Evidence and Cross-Examination		258
9. Time Limits and Preliminary Steps		258
9.1 Preliminary Requirements		258
9.2 Exhausting Internal Appeals		259
9.3 Time Limits		259
9.4 Evidence Required to Initiate a Claim		260
9.5 Procedural Stages		260
9.6 Initial Sifting Process		261
9.7 Expedited Proceedings		262
10. Grounds		262
10.1 Scope of Judicial Review: Merits v Process		262
10.2 Constitutional Challenge		262
10.3 Procedural Errors		263
10.4 Factual Errors		263
10.5 Abdication or Fettering of Discretion		263
10.6 Bias		263
10.7 Unequal Treatment		263
10.8 Human Rights		264
10.9 Proportionality		264
10.10 Additional Grounds		264
10.11 Exempt Decisions		264
11. Defence		264
11.1 Timing and Grounds of Defence		264
12. Interim Relief		265
12.1 Common Forms of Interim Relief		265
13. Remedies		265
13.1 Damages		265
13.2 Invalidating Legislation		265
13.3 Mandating Government Action Through Court Orders		266
13.4 Next Steps Where a Decision Is Found Unlawful		266
14. Costs		266
14.1 Mechanisms to Protect Claimants From Excessive Costs		266
14.2 Public Interest Costs		266
14.3 Wasted Costs		266
15. Appeals		266
15.1 Right to Appeal		266
15.2 Appeal Forums		266
15.3 Permission to Appeal		266
15.4 Rehearing of Appeal?		266

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